Reading Passages: The reading section of the TOEFL measures the ability to read, understand and analyze short passage similar in topic and style to those that North American college and university students encounter in their courses, the section contains. 3 reading passages with 12 to 14 question on each passage. Each passage is roughly 675 to 725 words in length. Passages generally follow the typical American English Organization structure. Passage 1 - The Norse Civilization
The Norse civilization was born in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the land of the fjords, lit by the boreal sun and swept across by the winds of long and cold winters. The formation of this people began around the 10^th century BC and the Iron Age started rather late on these lands, about the 5^th century BC the first certain proofs of a Norse culture data from the time when these people began crafting iron objects. The first representation of the gods Odin and Thor, as well as the first runic inscriptions also date back to this period.
The Norse’s pillage expeditions carried them far from their homes. They have gone far as Spain in the west and reached the beaches of the Black Sea in the East. A group of relatively recent archaeological findings indicate the fact that the Vikings were even the first Europeans to set foot on North America, long before Columbus. Their history contains stories of the journeys of Leifr Eiriksson, who sailed to “vinland” and attempted to settle there but was driven back by the “Skraelings”. These are good reasons to believe that Vinland is North America (the Newfoundland Island, to be more exact) and the skraelings are its native inhabitants.
The Norse were good sailors, skilled in the art of sailing itself, as well as in the craft of ship making. In fact, sailing had profound meanings in the Norse culture, which is proven by the findings of several tombs built in the form of a ship. The “long boats”, as the Scandinavian ships were called, were fast and maneuverable because of a series of technological innovations which they contained. For example, the paddled ships had mobile seats, which lowered the effort of the rowers. The Viking ships were made of oak or ash and measured around 60-80 feet, being able to carry 70-80 men. The body of the ship was built of overlapping planks –the “clincker” design-which were sealed with cattle hair. The ships had several names, according to their use: the war ships were called drakkar, the commercial ships were called snekkar and the small boats were called holkkar. Most of the time, the drakkar was decorated with runes and war scenes, and a dragon head was sculpted at the prow.
The Norse lived in big, strong houses, which had a single room. These houses were called skail and were shaped like a boat, another clue of the importance of sailing in their lives. The walls were called skail and were shaped like a boat, another clue of the importance of sailing in their lives. The walls were made of turf and stone and sealed off with mud and animals hair. The fire was made in the middle of the only room and the sleeping places were aligned along the walls. These houses offered shelter not only for men but also for their animals too. The Norse were very attached to their homes, balding their houses with much care. The massive, wooden furniture was often sculpted with intricate models and the house interiors were decorated with brightly colored cloth, meant to create a warm and cozy atmosphere. The Norse home was a strong contrast to the harsh nature that these people lived in, being a place of refuge and joy for them.
Although their raids terrorized many of the contemporary peoples and gave them an image of unforgiving warriors, the Norse civilization isn’t just about military actions. On the contrary these people who tamed the wild and bitter land they were born on, left us a special folklore, with lots of beautiful stories and subtle meaning. The Norse sagas are remarkable not only for the power of their evocation, but also for their artistic value. Although their unification in a consistence cycle didn’t happen but rather late, in the Viking age, the most important creations of the Norse literature are much older and seem to be gathered from many sources, which suggest the rich culture life that the Norse had. The poetic Edda contains series of poems, enchantments and magical formulas that present the Scandinavians view on how the world, the gods and men were born, as well as several legends about the life of the gods, which vary in style from the epic heroic story to the lyrical ballad.
Questions
1. The word “profound” in the paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to a.difficult b.significant c.simple d.complex Answer: a
2. The word “representation” in the passage is closest in meaning to a.portrayals b.manifestations c.formations d.evolutions Answer:  c
3. The word “There” in the passage refers to a.recent archaeological findings b.Europeans c.Columbus d.the Vikings Answer:  d
4. The word “which” in the passage refers to a.Norse culture b.ship making c.sailing d.pillaging Answer:  c
5. According to paragraph 2, the Vikings failed to settle in “Vinland” because a.The atmosphere was not conductive to settlement. b.sailing was difficult c.they were driven away by the “skraelings” d.Leifr Eitiksson refused to settle there. Answer:  c
6. Sailing and exploration were important for the Norse because a.they were adventurous by nature b.they were in search of better icing conditions c.they needed to go on looting expeditions d.they wanted to conquer new lands Answer:  b
7. From paragraph 5, what can be inferred about Norse writings? a.The writings were well organized b.They were compiled in one place from the very beginning c.They were all from the same source d.They were gather from different source and compiled later Answer:  d
8. According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of Norse ship making except a.They came up with several innovative ideas while constructing longboats. b.Oak and ash were mainly used to construct Viking ships. c.Ships for different purpose had different names. d.The ships were simple and devoid of decoration. Answer:  d
9. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of Norse architecture except a.Their houses resembled boats b.The houses often had more than one room c.The furniture was wooden and quite imposing d.Brightly colored clothes were used to decorate the house. Answer:  b
10. Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? a.The unified Norse literature is rich in folklore and culture values. b.The unification of Norse literary works happened inconsistently. c.Consistent unification happened late and older Norse works were gathered from many source. d.The distinguishing feature of Norse literature is its powerful evocation and variety in style. Answer:  c
11. The word “evocation” in the passage is closest in meaning to a.Devotion b.Summoning c.Mystery d.Originality Answer:  b
Directions: An introductory sentence or a brief summary of the passage is provide below. Complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentence do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. 12. The passage discusses the onset, progress and salient features of the Norse civilization. •_____________________ •_____________________ •_____________________
Answer the choice a.The Norse civilization began around the 5th century BC. b.The Norse people were good sailors who were proficient in ship-making as well. c.Their decorations and buildings display their familiarity with military with military activities, mythology, use of color and various architectural style which made their works unique. d.Expeditions took them all over the world and they were feared wherever they went. e.In spite of being explorers, the Norse were very attached to their homes. f.Norse literature is rich in stylistic and generic variety. g.Earliest archeological findings describe a civilization that was deeply religious, brave and resilient
Answer:  b,d,f Passage 2 - Exclusive Economic Zone
Australia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) encompass an area of ocean almost twice the size of its land mass. Stretching from the tropics to the temperate, it is not only the largest EEZ in the world but also one of the richest in terms of the abundant diversity of marine organisms living within its boundaries
Historically economic Zones have been important in order to protect fish and petroleum, but in the age of ‘bio-prospecting’ and high-technology drug discovery, the rich abundance of diverse marine life may prove to be one of Australia’s most valuable resource. Marine organisms often produce chemicals as a mean of defense or as an offensive weapon. Scientists are now beginning to look at such bio-active chemicals in order to discover new drugs or other useful products for humans, animal health, agriculture and other industries.
While the diversity of Australia’s marine organisms have made it the target of bio-prospecting by a variety of overseas organizations, a vibrant Australian pharmaceutical industry depends on Australia itself developing this resource into commercially successful drugs and products- a strategy strongly supported by the Commonwealth Government.
Since 1994, researchers at the Australian institute of Marine Science have been working with Australian pharmaceutical company, AMRAD, as part of a national network of Australian organizations committed to the commercialization of Australia’s biomedical research. The vision of the AIMS Marine Bio products Project is to discover a compound from a marine organism which leads to a major commercial drug. While such an achievement could take ten years or more, the process leading to such a discovery stands to tell us much about the marine life in our oceans.
An important task of the Marine Bio products project is the development of a marine microbe collection. Aims researches plan to isolate over 6,000 taxonomically diverse micro-organisms by December 1998, and to cultivate an additional 800 previously unknown and unusual micro-organisms. Marine fungi and an important group of bacteria called actinomycetes are also being targeted, since both these groups of organisms have an excellent track record in the production, natural product over 4,000 actinomycetes and fungi will be isolated by the year 2000.
However, the AIMAS Marine Bio products Project goes beyond drug development. In Western Australia, scientists are not only expanding the macro-organism collection to include species from the Indian Ocean, they are also addressing industries concern by studying source of paralytic shellfish toxins which the ballast water of international ships may introduce into Australia’s Marine environment. Researchers are also studying algae which are known to produce chemicals that can induce coral larvae to settle on substrates. In a time when the destruction of coral reefs is causing grave international concerns, discovering chemicals which might aid in the recovery of such reefs is of great importance.
Marine organism often exhibit unique chemical responses when they are under stress. Another sub-project focuses on understanding these process, at the sub-cellular level in order to gain insight into the significance of environmental variability and global climate change. Many of the chemicals may also prove to have commercial or biochemical applications. For example, the chemical corals produce to protect themselves from UV exposure may soon be used in sunscreen Protection.
The marine Bio products projects also includes a team of researchers looking towards the future direction of research by developing a clearer understanding of the fundamental aspects of marine biology and chemistry on a molecular level, thereby promoting innovative new projects for the future.
Discoveries made through the Marine Bio products Project will not only help the future of Australia’s pharmaceutical industry, they will also tell us a great deal about the marine life in our oceans. In addition, the discovery of an important chemical in a marine organism could serve as further ammunition in the battle to ensure the protection of our marine environment. While the initial collection involves taking samples of organisms from the wild, a large effort is under way to ensure the conservation of these resources. Researchers are working to find alternative means of producing these chemicals by cultivating those bioactive organisms which slow great promise.
Questions:
1. The Word “encompasses” in the first paragraph is the closest in meaning to a.Removes b.Produces c.Occupies d.Accelerates Answer: c
2. Which of the following best express the essential information in the highlighted paragraph 8? In correct answer choice change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information? a.The researchers of the Marine Bio products Project are interested in fundamental aspects of marine drugs. b.The Marine Bio products Project has attracted a group of highly talented researchers interested in futuristic research. c.The researchers of the Marine Bio products Project are interested in futuristic research based on fundamental understanding of marine biology and chemistry. d.The Marine Bio products project deals with the reorganizing of fundamental molecular structures to produce new drugs. Answer: d
3.From paragraph 5 what can be inferred about the kind of marine life from which drugs can be made? a.They can be obtained from fishes. b.They can be obtained from molluses. c. Microbes are the best source. d.Corals are useful in this regard. Answer: c
4.The word “induce” in the sixth paragraph is closest in meaning to a.Destroy b.Produce c.Scare d.Influence Answer: b
5.The word “that” in the passage refers to a.research b.chemicals c.alage d.larvae Answer: b
6.According to paragraph 2, Australia’s diverse marine life can be really useful in the modern age because. a.It is rich in petroleum. b.It is major tourist attraction. c.It provides a lot of scope for fishing. d.It can yield useful drugs and other products. Answer: d
7.The word “ammunition” in the 9th paragraph is closest in meaning to a.Food b.Weapon c.Drawback d.Product Answer: b
8.The Word “they” in the 8th paragraph refers to. a.Marine organism b.Sub-projects c.Bio products d.Weapons Answer: a
9.From paragraph 6, what can be inferred about the usefulness of chemicals produce by marine organisms? a.They are useful only for humans. b.They are useful for both humans and corals. c.They are useful for all marine organisms. d.Their usefulness is yet to be confirmed. Answer: c
10.According to paragraph 9, all the following are advantages of the Marine Bio Products Project except. a.It will help the pharmaceutical industry by developing new drugs. b.It will help us know more about marine life. c.It will help to protect the marine environment. d.It will interest every county to undertake marine research. Answer: d
11.The word “they” in the paragraph 9 refers to. a.Industry b.Project c.Marine life d.Discoveries Answer: b
Direction: An introductory sentence or a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentence do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not represented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
12.The passage discusses the ongoing research in the field of marine drugs in Australia.

• _________________________________
• _________________________________
• _________________________________

a.Australia’s diverse marine life present ample scope for researchers to explore the possibility of effective drugs that could be obtained from it. b.Research is going on all over the world to find out the uses of these drugs. c.Mostly microbes are rich sources of various useful chemicals out of which drugs can be made. d.It is found that marine organisms react differently to different stimuli. e.Their varied responses to natural hazards provide us different chemicals under different conditions. f.Research is on not only to develop new drugs but also to find out how marine environment can be protected using these drugs.
Answer: a,c,f
Passage 3 - Existentialism
Existentialism is a catch-all term for those scholars who consider the way of the human condition as a key philosophical issue and who share the perspective that this issue is best for addressing through ontology. This extremely expansive definition will be illuminated by discussing seven key topics that existentialist masterminds address. Those scholars considered existentialists are for the most part from the European continent, and date from the 19th and 20th centuries.
Outside philosophy, the existentialist development is likely the most surely understood philosophical development, and no less than two of its individuals are among the most well-known philosophical identities and generally read philosophical writers. It has surely had extensive impact outside philosophy, for instance on psychological theory and on the arts. Within philosophy, though, it is protected to say this free development considered all in all has not had an awesome effect, despite the fact that people or thoughts tallied inside it stay vital.
In addition, the greater part of the philosophers customarily gathered under this heading either never utilized, or effectively repudiated, the term 'existentialist'. Indeed, even Sartre himself once said: "Existentialism? I don't know what that is." So, there is a case to be made that the term – seeing that it drives us to overlook what is particular about philosophical positions and to conflate together essentially distinctive thoughts – accomplishes more damage than great.
Reasoning ought not to be considered principally either as an endeavor to explore and comprehend the self or the world, or as an exceptional occupation that worries just a couple. Or maybe, philosophy must be considered as completely incorporated inside life. Certainly, there may should be proficient rationalists, who build up an involved arrangement of techniques and ideas (Sartre makes this point every now and again) however life can be lived thoughtfully without a specialized learning of philosophy.
Yet another existentialist thought dictates every person spends lifetime changing his or her essence without life there can be no meaning for meaning in existentialism is the search for self. In other words, we define ourselves by living; killing yourself would indicate you have chosen to have no meaning existentialist believe in living – in fact, fighting for life, Camus, Sartre and Nietzsche were involved in various wars because they had a strong belief in fighting for the survival of their respective countries.
Existentialist scholars had a tendency to recognize two historical antecedents for this thought. To start with, the ancient Greeks, and especially the figure of Socrates additionally the Stoics and Epicureans. Socrates was non-proficient, as well as in his quest for the great life he had a tendency to eschew the arrangement of a "framework" or 'hypothesis', and his teachings occurred regularly in broad daylight spaces. In this, the existentialists were not really abnormal. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the fast extension of industrialization and development in innovation were regularly found regarding a distance of the human from nature or from an appropriately characteristic method for living (for instance, masterminds of German and English romanticism).
In order to understand the current meaning of existentialism, one must first understand that the American view of existentialism was derived from the writings of political activities, not intellectual purists. Americans learned the term existential after Word War 2. The term is credited to Jean-Paul Sartre to describe his own philosophies, but it was actually coined by Kierkegaard when he described his existential dialectic. It was not until the late 1950s that the term was applied broadly to several divergent schools of thought. As stated earlier, existentialism maintains that life is a series of choice creating stress. Few decisions are without any negative consequences. Some things are irrational or absurd, without explanation. If one makes a decision, he or she must follow through. Even these concepts are not universal within existentialist writings, or at least the writings of the people labeled as such. Blaise Pascal, for example, spent the last years of his life writing in support of predetermination, the theory that is better known as fate. First, there is the basic existentialist standpoint, that existence precedes essence. Man is a conscious subject, rather than a thing to be predicted or manipulated; he exists as a conscious being, and not in accordance with any definition, essence, generalization or system. Existentialism says, I am nothing but my own conscious existence.
Questions
1.The word “It” in the second paragraph refers to. a.existentialist development b.psychological theory c.philosophical identities d.philosophical development Answer: a
2.The word “repudiated” in the second paragraph has the closet meaning to. a.Castoff b.Damaged c.Discredited d.Disgraced Answer: d
3.According to 5th paragraph the suicide would make life meaningless because. a.Suicide brings life to premature end. b.Since the essence of life keeps changing for the better throughout life, one should not commit suicide. c.Life is made meaningful only by correct actions which suicide is not. d.Existentialists believe that individuals define and impart meaning to their lives by living it. Answer: b
4.The word “derived” has the closet meaning to. a.Deduced b.Rejected c.Censored d.Experimented Answer: d
5.The word “framework” has the closet meaning to. a.Groundwork b.Strategy c.Structure d.Composition Answer: c
6.The word “hypothesis” has the closet meaning to. a.Axiom b.roof c.Explanation d.Conclusion Answer: c
7.According to paragraph 5 all the following philosophers were involved in wars except. a.Sartre b.Hegel c.Camus d.Nietzsche Answer: b
8.Which of the following best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence?
a.Situations in life keeps changing and there is nothing stable in life. b.A quest for meaning is also a quest for variety and change. c.The understanding of self lies in living life and realizing its changing nature. d.Life is made meaningful only through constant efforts at changing its essence. Answer: a
9.The American view of existentialism was derived from the writings of. a.political activities b.philosophies c.scholars d.individuals Answer: a
10.The word “rationalists” in the second paragraph has the closet meaning to. a.Optimist b.Questioner c.Pessimist d.Devotee Answer: b
Direction: An introductory sentence or a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
11.The passage discuss the rise and the salient features of the prominent movement called Existentialism.

• _____________________________
• _____________________________
• _____________________________

a.The 19th and 20th centuries saw the advent of a philosophy termed existentialism which emphasize the importance of individuality and the necessity of living to make existence meaningful. b.It is up to the individuals to make their own decisions through they have little knowledge of what is right or wrong and this worries individuals since they will be held responsible for their actions. c.Most of the existentialist were involved in wars. d.Existentialism largely emerged out of political writings and observations of war and the Second World War contributed a lot to the development of existence thought. e.Existentialism made a global impact and as a result various schools of thought emerged all over the world. f.All the concepts of Existentialism are not universally accepted. Different thinkers have different options but the basic remain the same. Answer: a,b,f
Direction: Look at the four squares [::::] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
"Existentialists attempt to direct our attention to ourselves as individuals"
12. [::::] This does not mean that existentialists are unsystematic, but rather that they tend to emphasize the richness of human experience rather than construct a tidy framework. [::::] Therefore, a precise definition is impossible; however, it suggest one major theme: a stress on individual existence and the subsequent development of personal essence. [::::] Man is the only known being, according to the philosophers that defines itself merely through the act of living.[::::]
Answer: [Existentialists attempt to direct our attention to ourselves as individuals]. This does not mean that existentialists are unsystematic, but rather that they tend to emphasize the richness of human experience rather than construct a tidy framework. Therefore, a precise definition is impossible; however, it suggest one major theme: a stress on individual existence and the subsequent development of personal essence. Man is the only known being, according to the philosophers that defines itself merely through the act of living.
Passage 4 - Genetics
Tuberculosis may call to mind Old west consumptives and early 20^th-century sanatoriums, yet according to the World Health Organization, the disease took the lives of more than 1.5 million people worldwide in 2006. In the United State alone, thousands of new cases are reported annually making TB an enduring menace.
Among those trying to decipher the origins and trajectory of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria responsible for TB, are three researchers in ASU’s College of Liberal Arts and Science. Graduate student Luz-Andrea “Lucha” Pfister and associate professor in the School of Life Sciences, are trying to establish a credible evolutionary timeline for TB.
The research estimates that the evolutionary leap took place prior to the domestication of cows more than 113,000 years ago indicating M. tuberculosis is a much older pathogen than previously believed. This outcome support that of the French Pasteur Institute’s Cristina Gutierrez, an evolutionary mycobacteriologist whose work first cast doubt on the cattle-to-human TB link and its date range.
With no fossil evidence to consult, studying the deep history of bacteria has only recently become possible Geomics in TB’s development, such as when it expand in the human population. Through their work, they also plan to address the bio-geography of the disease and what types of TB ancient people had relative to modern strains.
Why are scientists interested in TB’s status thousands of years ago? Pfister puts the research into perspective: “An accurate timeframe can help us learn about the development between host and pathogen. It can aid in understanding the disease and the way it evolves, how it creates new strains to stay alive.
As Stone is quick to point out, “the data we generate can be used by clinicians to study this disease and formulate appropriate treatments. Our work is historical, but implications are far- reaching.”
One of the primary goals is to calculate a meaning full mutations rate. The established model for bacteria was developed in the 1980s in regard to E. coil. Pfister notes, “This mutation rate has been used as the universal standard, which is not feasible. TB and E coil are very different. Bacteria may evolve at different rates we cannot say that one model applies to all.”
Pfister, Stone and Rosenberg worked with 108 genes, compared to just over 20 genes used in the E.coil formula. As a result, they were able to delve deeper than Gutierrez at the time she conducted her ground-breaking research. “The Pasteur Institute looked at a small piece of the genome; the full genome give a much better idea,” says Stone, alluding to the team’s comprehensive approach and its possibilities.
Rosenberg, a computational evolutionary biologist who designed the program to analyze many of the sequences, says the project shows that “as we get more data and complete sequencing of full genomes, we find new ways of looking at issues, which can do away with assumptions. An example is the belief of cow-to-human transmissions of TB. That was a long-held notion, but it was just an assumption.”
“It is the evolutionary way of thinking that has caused us to explore this issue from new and varied angles,” states Pfister. “An evolutionary perspective is also important in a contemporary sense because our species population is growing dramatically. Soon we will reach carrying capacity. We reach carrying capacity. We will start producing pathogens and opportunities for problems at escalating rates.”
Pfister was born and raised in Chile where TB ran rampant before being subdued by aggressive government health programs. However, as in other parts of the world, Chile is presently facing a resurgence of tuberculosis. Still, Pfister is hopeful that someday the deadly pathogen will be rendered obsolete. She enthuses, “We now have lots of gene data. We can count mutations. There is so much evidence out there; we just need to link it all. If we start looking at the history and essence of TB in a holistic, Tran’s disciplinary way, we can see the big picture and find solutions.”
Questions 1.The word “enduring” in the first paragraph is closest in meaning to: a.Necessary b.Unavoidable c.Focusing d.Continuing Answer: a
2.The word “which” in the passage refers to: a.Universal standard b.Mutation rate c.E.coil d.Bacteria Answer: b
3.The word “trajectory” in the second paragraph is closest in meaning to. a.Features b.Research c.Basics d.Path Answer: d
4.According to paragraph 5, it is important that the history of TB is known because. a.It will allow the researchers to alter its structure. b.It will let scientists study TB’s earliest form. c.It will enable common people to keep away from its source. d.It will allow researchers to study its evolution and various strains Answer: d
5.Which of the following best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices changes the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Pfister was born and raised in Chile where TB ran rampant before being subdued by aggressive government health programs. However, as in other parts of the world, Chile is presently facing a resurgence of tuberculosis.
a.Chile, which was once majorly troubled by TB, Has managed to rid itself of the disease. b.Since Pfister saw the destruction inflicted by TB in Chile, she wants to eradicate it completely. c.TB is making a comeback in most other parts of the world. d.Though TB was controlled in Chile where Pfister was born and raised, it’s making a comeback presently. Answer: d
6.The Word “dramatically” in the 10th paragraph is closest in meaning to. a.Steadily b.Alarmingly c.Slowly d.Properly Answer: a
7.The Word “that” in the passage refers to. a.Research b.Outcome c.Pasteur Institute d.Pathogen Answer: b
8.According to paragraph 4, genetics is extremely important for study of bacterial history because. a.Only genetics can reveal the structure of bacteria. b.There are no fossils to use as evidence. c.Bacteria usually attack human genome. d.Genetics can give a more accurate history than any other evidence. Answer: a
9.According to paragraph 7 it is not prudent to stick to a fixed mutation rate because. a.Mutation rates changes with time. b.The same strain of bacteria can have different rates of mutation. c.Different strains of bacteria have different rates of mutation. d.Over the years it has been observed that mutation rates are becoming faster. Answer: c
10.From paragraph 9, what can be inferred about some of the medical ideas which have been propagated for a long time? a.All of them were tested and proved. b.Several of them were assumptions. c.Some of them are totally false and concocted. d.Some of those results were influenced by several other factors. Answer: b
11. According to paragraph 4, all of the following properties of TB are being studied by researchers except. a.Major milestones in TB’s evolution. b.The global distribution of TB. c.Ancient and modern strains of TB. d.The chemical composition of the bacteria. Answer: a
Directions: Look at the four Squares [:::::] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
"Their research suggests that the disease migrated from humans to cattle not the reverse, as has long been assumed." 12.[:::::] The research estimates that the evolutionary leap took place prior to the domestication of cows more than 113,000 years ago indicating M.tuberculosis is a much older pathogen than previously believed. [:::::]This outcome supports that of the French Pasteur Institute’s Cristiana Gutierrez, an evolutionary mycobacteriologist whose work first cast doubt on the cattle-to-human TB link and its date range. [:::::] Gutierrez calls the findings of Pfister’s team conformation of TB’s ancient origins and human-cattle transmissions. [:::::] Answer:  The research estimates that the evolutionary leap took place prior to the domestication of cows more than 113,000 years ago indicating M.tuberculosis is a much older pathogen than previously believed. This outcome supports that of the French Pasteur Institute’s Cristiana Gutierrez, an evolutionary mycobacteriology whose work first cast doubt on the cattle-to-human TB link and its date range. [Their research suggests that the disease migrated from humans to cattle not the reverse, as has long been assumed].Gutierrez calls the findings of Pfister’s team confirmation of TB’s ancient origins and human-cattle transmissions.